Medical Terminology

The following are common root words that relate to body parts

Sometimes medical terms have more than one root word. An example of this is the word leucocyte. The root words are ‘leuc’ meaning white and ‘cyte’ meaning a cell. To join these two words together the combining vowel ‘o’ was used to ensure a smoother flow with pronunciation.

The combining vowel is a word part, usually an o, and is used to ease pronunciation of the medical term. A combining vowel is used to connect two word roots and to connect a word root and a suffix.

There are four very important guidelines that must be followed for the use of combining vowels:

1. When connecting a root word and suffix, a combining vowel is used if the suffix does not begin with a vowel.
   Example, arthr-itis, leuk-aemia and hyster-ectomy.
2. When connecting a word root and a suffix, a combining vowel is usually not used if the suffix begins with a vowel.
3. When connecting two word roots, a combining vowel is usually used even if vowels are present at the junction.
4. When connecting a prefix and a word root, a combining vowel is not used.
   Example, dysuria.

The following suffixes all mean ‘relating to’ and form common endings for many medical words.

Whenever you see these endings, graphy, graph, gram, they relate to recording an image such as an X-ray, CT or MRI scan or a written recording with pen and moving paper. Mammography is the process of recording, i.e. the machine and procedure. Mammogram is the image itself, the X-ray. A recording of heart activity is called an electrocardiogram using an electrocardiograph. A recording of brain activity is an electroencephalogram and the medical procedure and machine is called electroencephalography.

To see a lung specialist, you would visit a pulmonologist. To see a specialist in nerve and brain disease, make an appointment with a neurologist. If you have a bad eye infection, you may be referred to an ophthalmologist.

• Is to transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).
• Protection of the body by white blood cells, antibodies, and complement proteins that circulate in the blood and defend the body against foreign microbes and toxins. Clotting mechanisms are also present that protect the body from blood loss after injuries.
• Regulation of body temperature, fluid pH, and water content of cells.
• The circulatory system works with the lymphatic system to carry water and nutrients throughout the body.

Your heart is the only circulatory system organ. Blood goes from the heart to the lungs to get oxygen. The lungs are part of the respiratory system. Your heart then pumps oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest of the body.

Is to transport air into the lungs and to facilitate the diffusion of oxygen into the blood stream.

The main organ of the respiratory system is the lungs. Other respiratory organs include the nose, the trachea and the breathing muscles (the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles).

The nervous system acts as the coordinator of all activities of the body. Different parts of your body send messages to the brain through the nerves and spinal cord. Once your brain gets these messages, it responds by interpreting the messages and reacting. The brain can then send instructions out to the body.

The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body.

The main function of the Muscular System

• Is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body.
• The maintenance of posture and body position.

The main function of the Skeletal System

Support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

The most common condition affecting bones is fractures.  The following is a list of words and their meanings that relate to bone fractures.

The major parts of the digestive system

• Salivary glands
• Pharynx
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine
• Large Intestine
• Rectum
• Accessory digestive organs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Functions of the GI system
• Motility: movement through the GI tract
• Digestion: breakdown of food or chyme
• Secretion and absorption: across and epithelial layer either into the GI tract (secretion) or into blood (absorption)
• Storage and elimination

Functions of the Oesophagus
• From pharynx to stomach
• Salivary glands release mucus for lubrication, antimicrobial agents, and amylase to digest starch.
• Epiglottis covers respiratory tract during swallowing
• At end of oesophagus is the lower oesophagus sphincter (LES)
• Propulsion of food occurs through peristalsis: contraction occurs behind the bolus of food and relaxation occurs ahead of the bolus of food.

Functions of the Stomach
• Store food
• Initiate digestion of proteins
• Kill bacteria with the strong acidity (low pH of the gastric juice)
• Make chyme

Functions of the small intestine
The small intestine has three parts: the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. It helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from food so they can be used by the body.

Functions of the large intestine
The purpose of the large intestine is to absorb water and salts from the material that has not been digested as food and get rid of any waste products left over. By the time food mixed with digestive juices reaches your large intestine, most digestion and absorption has already taken place.

Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. This lets the hormones travel to cells in other parts of the body.

The endocrine hormones help control mood, growth and development, the way our organs work, metabolism and reproduction.

The endocrine system regulates how much of each hormone is released. This can depend on levels of hormones already in the blood, or on levels of other substances in the blood, like calcium. Many things affect hormone levels, such as stress, infection, and changes in the balance of fluid and minerals in blood.

While many parts of the body make hormones, the major glands that make up the endocrine system are the:

• hypothalamus
• pituitary gland
• thyroid
• parathyroids
• adrenal glands
• pineal body
• reproductive glands (which include the ovaries and testes)

The pancreas is part of the endocrine system and the digestive system. That’s because it secretes hormones into the bloodstream and makes and secretes enzymes into the digestive tract.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is in the lower central part of the brain. It links the endocrine system and nervous system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make chemicals that control the release of hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus gathers information sensed by the brain (such as the surrounding temperature, light exposure, and feelings) and sends it to the pituitary. This information influences the hormones that the pituitary makes and releases.

Pituitary: The pituitary gland is at the base of the brain and is no bigger than a pea. Despite its small size, the pituitary is often called the “master gland.” The hormones it makes control many other endocrine glands.

The pituitary gland makes many hormones, such as:

• growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body’s handling of nutrients and minerals
• prolactin, which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding
• thyrotropin which stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones
• corticotropin which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones
• antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidneys
• oxytocin which triggers the contractions of the uterus that happen during labour

The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system and reduce feelings of pain. The pituitary also secretes hormones that signal the reproductive organs to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.

Thyroid: The thyroid is in the front part of the lower neck. It’s shaped like a bow tie or butterfly. It makes the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to make energy. The more thyroid hormone there is in the bloodstream, the faster chemical reactions happen in the body.

Parathyroids: Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that work together called the parathyroids. They release parathyroid hormone, which controls the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which the thyroid makes.

Adrenal Glands: These two triangular adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which makes a set of hormones and has a different function:

1. The outer part is the adrenal cortex. It makes hormones called corticosteroids that help control salt and water balance in the body, the body’s response to stress, metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function.
2. The inner part is the adrenal medulla. It makes catecholamines, such as epinephrine. Also called adrenaline, epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body is under stress.

Pineal: The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is in the middle of the brain. It secretes melatonin a hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when you wake in the morning.

Reproductive Glands: The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people don’t realise it, but both males and females have gonads. In males, the male gonads, or testes are in the scrotum. They secrete hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones tell a male body when it’s time to make the changes associated with puberty, like penis and height growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic hair. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also tells a male body when it’s time to make sperm in the testes.

A female’s gonads, the ovaries are in her pelvis. They make eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved when a female starts puberty. During puberty, a female will have breast growth, start to accumulate body fat around the hips and thighs, and have a growth spurt. Estrogen and progesterone are also involved in the regulation of a female’s menstrual cycle. These hormones also play a role in pregnancy.

Pancreas: The pancreas makes insulin and glucagon which are hormones that control the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. Insulin helps keep the body supplied with stores of energy. The body uses this stored energy for exercise and activity, and it also helps organs work as they should.

One of the most common endocrine disorders is diabetes Type I Diabetes (IDDM) Insulin dependent diabetic.

This is a form of early onset diabetes usually first diagnosed in childhood. This form of diabetes is an autoimmune disease. Insulin has stopped being produced by the pancreas. Therefore, insulin injections are needed to control blood sugar levels (BSL).

Symptoms include:

• polydipsia (increased thirst)
• polyuria (increased urine production)
• weight loss
• lethargy (tiredness)
• hyperglycaemia (high blood glucose)

Type II Diabetes (NIDDM) Non-insulin dependent diabetic

This is a form of diabetes associated with poor lifestyle choices. People who have Type II diabetes are often overweight and do not exercise regularly. There is often a family history of this type of diabetes. Symptoms may be minimal, or they may be asymptomatic. BSL’S (blood sugar levels) are often very high. The pancreas continues to produce insulin but not in adequate amounts to control BSL’S. The treatment for this form of diabetes is:

1. Diet
2. Exercise
3. Medications/sometimes
4. Insulin injections/sometimes

90% of people diagnosed with diabetes have Type II.

Gestational Diabetes – This is a form of diabetes occurring during pregnancy and usually resolves itself following the birth.

Is to transport lymph, a clear fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells (known as a lymphocyte), throughout the body.  Lymph contains tissue fluid, waste products and immune system cells.

The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases are the thymus and bone marrow, as well as secondary lymphatic tissues including spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin and liver.

• Antigen: substances that cause anti-body production
• Antibody: attacks harmful cells
• Vaccination: produces immunity against disease
• Allergy: hypersensitivity to a substance
• Anaphylaxis: emergency caused by an allergen

• To produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen)
• To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
• To produce and secrete male sex hormones.

Testes, prostate glands, sperm ducts, epididymis, urethra and penis.

• Produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes
• Prepares to support a developing embryo
  Undergoes changes according to the menstrual cycle
• Production of sex hormones

Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary glands and breasts.

Is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.

Skin (the largest organ of the body), hair, nails and exocrine glands. 

Excision: Removal of a skin lesion

Skin biopsy: Removal of a small amount of tissue for examination

Cryotherapy: Application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal cells

Curettage: Scraping of a superficial skin lesion for examination

Burns can be caused from:

1. chemicals
2. radiation
3. electricity
4. heat

Burns are measured in degrees. The higher the degree, the more severe is the burn. Burns can be 1^st degree (superficial), 2^nd degree (partial thickness) and 3^rd degree (full thickness).

1^st degree burns (superficial) are the least severe. There is damage to the outer layer of the skin (the epidermis) and the skin may look inflamed, red or both.

In 2^nd degree burns (partial thickness) there is damage to the epidermis and the dermis. The skin may be blistered and there may be skin loss. There is also intense pain because there has been damage to the nerves in the dermal layer.

3^rd degree burns (full thickness) are by far the more dangerous. There is damage to the epidermis, the dermis and to the deeper sub-cutaneous layers. The skin may appear charred. As the nerve endings are dead, there is often not a lot of pain.

The larger the surface area of the burn the poorer the prognosis.  If large areas of the body are affected, then fluid balance is difficult to maintain. The risk of infection in severe burns is also very high.